2005年中央党校博士研究生入学英语考试试卷3

Passage 4

In this book, then, democracy-or what Robert Dahl terms polyarchy-denotes a system of government that meets three essential conditions: meaningful and extensive competition among individuals and organized groups (especially political parties) for all effective positions of government power, at regular intervals and excluding the use of force; a "highly inclusive" level of political participation in the selection of leaders and policies, at least through regular and fair elections, such that no major (adult) social group is excluded; and a level of civil and political liberties-freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom to form and join organizations -sufficient to ensure the integrity of political competition and participation.

While this definition is, in itself, relatively straightforward, it presents a number of problems in application. For one, countries that broadly satisfy these criteria nevertheless do so to different degrees (and none do so perfectly, which is why Dahl prefers to call them polyarchies). The factors that explain this variation at the democratic end of the spectrum in degrees of popular control and freedom is an important intellectual problem, but it is different from the one that concerns us in this book, and so it is one we have had largely to bypass. We seek to determine why countries do or do not evolve, consolidate, maintain, lose and reestablish more or less democratic systems of government, and even this limited focus leaves us with conceptual problems.

The boundary between democratic and undemocratic is sometimes blurred and imperfect, and beyond it lies a much broader range of variation in political systems. We readily concede the difficulties of classification this variation has repeatedly caused us. Even if we look only at the political, legal, and constitutional structures, several of our cases appear to lie somewhere on the boundary between democratic and something less than democratic. The ambiguity is further complicated by the constraints on free political activity, organization, and expression, and the substantial remaining political prerogatives of military authorities, that may in practice make the system much less democratic than it might appear. In all cases, we have tried to pay serious attention to actual practice in assessing and classifying regimes. But still, this leaves us to make difficult and in some ways arbitrary judgments. The decision as to whether Thailand and Zimbabwe, for example, may today be considered full democracies is replete with nuance and ambiguity. Even in the case of Brazil, which was generally presumed democratic after the election of a civilian president in 1985, Alfred Stepan cautions that the extent of military prerogatives to participate in government and wield autonomous power put the country "on the margin of not being a democracy."With the direct presidential election of December 1989, the transition may now be considered closed, but serious problems of democratic consolidation remain.

71. This passage probably appears in __________.

A. in the introduction of a book

B. in the conclusion of a book

C. in the middle part a book

D. in the acknowledgement of a book

72. According to the author, the reason for Dahl to term democracy as polyarchy is that __________.

A. there are so many different democratic countries

B. not only the extent to which so-called democratic countries meet the three conditions is different, but also the democratic situations in all these countries need improving

C. Dahl wants to persuade people to accept his view

D. it is easier to understand democracy as polyarchy

73. The purpose of the author in this book is __________.

A. to give a different definition of democracy from Dahl

B. to tell people why democracy is important

C. to find out the reason why different countries have different democratic experience

D. to try to give a clear classification of democracy

74. According to the author, the difficulties to classify democracy may include __________.

A. a lot of varied political systems existing beyond the boundary between democratic and undemocratic

B. the indistinct and unsatisfactory boundary between democratic and undemocratic

C. the lack of regular and fair elections

D. Both A and B

75. Why are three countries Thailand, Zimbabwe and Brazil mentioned in the third paragraph?

A. They are considered full democracies.

B. They have established democratic systems.

C. It is very difficult to assess and classify the state of democracy in these three countries according to their actual practice.

D. They all are under the control of military authorities.

(注意：请将以下各题答案写在答题纸上)

Section B

Directions: In this section, there is a passage with five questions. After you have read the passage, answer the questions B5, B6, B7, B8, B9 and B10 in English on Answer Sheet B.

Passage 5

The ideas that flourished during the early years of cognitive science had a strong influence on the creative mind of a young psychologist named Jerome Bruner. In 1956, with colleagues Jacqueline Goodnow and George Austin, Bruner, published an ingenious and important account of categorization called A Study of Thinking. In it, they analyzed categorizing and expressed their belief that it explains why humans are not overwhelmed by environmental complexity. Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin effectively showed that their research participants actively participated in the classification process. As you can imagine, the great value of Bruner's work in the 1950s and 1960s lay in the energy it supplied to the renewed cognitive movement. Gardner noted that Bruner's study participants were treated as active, constructive problem solvers, rather than as passive reactors to whatever stimuli were presented to them. The active construction of solutions to problems implies that students turn to their cultural environment for clues to aid them in their task.

According to Bruner and his associates, three types of concepts exist:conjunctive, disjunctive, and relational. Conjunctive concepts rely on the joint presence of several attributes. These attributes are abstracted from many individual experiences with an object, thing, or event. So there are categories, such as boy, car, book, and orange. Disjunctive concepts are composed of concepts, any one of whose attributes may be used in classification. That is, one or another of its attributes enables an object to be placed in a particular category. A good example of the disjunctive category is the strike in baseball. A strike may be a ball thrown by the pitcher that is over the plate and between a batter's shoulders and knees, or a ball at which the better swings and misses, or a ball that the batter hits as a foul (outside the playing limits of the diamond). Any one of these attributes enables the observer to classify it as a strike. Relational concepts are formed by the relationship that exists among defining attributes. The authors illustrate this category by using income brackets. There are many income levels or classes, all of which exist because of the relationship among income, eligible expenses, and number of dependents. The combination of these properties determines an individual's income class. These are relational categories.

Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin concluded that categorizing implies more than merely recognizing instances. Rules are learned and then applied to new situations. Students learn that a sentence-subject, object, predicate-is the basic unit in writing, in history class as well as in English class. The various categories (conjunctive, disjunctive, relational) are really rules for grouping attributes to define the positive instances of any concept. Bruner's work on discovery learning, along with that of Piaget and Vygotsky, led to constructivism, the current prevailing approach to the study and application of cognitive psychology.

Answer the following questions briefly according to what you have just read.

B5. What is the most appropriate title for this passage?

B6. According to Bruner's theory, why wouldn't humans be overwhelmed by environmental complexity?

B7. What is mainly discussed in the second paragraph?

B8. What do Bruner and his associates want to illustrate by giving the example of the strike in baseball?

B9. What is the function of Bruner's theory of categorization?

B10. What is most likely to be talked about in the following paragraph?

V. Translation (15 points)

Directions: Put the following into Chinese, and write your translation on Answer Sheet B. You don't need to translate the names of people.

Choosing the appropriate from of capitalist development is generally thought to be a major responsibility of the state. Variations of the capitalist model are primarily the result of political choices by governments past and present. Models diverge on two major issues: how far the state intervenes in the market economy by ownership and control of the means of production and distribution and by acting as the regulatory authority over private enterprise; and how far it assumes responsibility for social welfare. The issue of divergence was first raised in Andrew Shonfield's Modern Capitalism. More recently, Michael Albert in France has drawn a sharp distinction between what he calls Rhenish capitalism and the Anglo-Saxon variety. American authors especially have drawn equally sharp distinctions between 'western' models of capitalism and 'Asian' ones, of which Japan is the prototype, and Korea, Taiwan and Singapore are regional variants. In the Asian model, the state more actively intervenes to protect domestic enterprises from foreign competition, to provide them with ready assess to capital for expansion, while using what political measures seem necessary to the government to maintain political stability and confidence in the economic future.

In the economic literature on development, too, there has been much discussion over the role of public policy in developing countries in choosing between import substitution and export orientation. The weight of argument by professional liberal economists, and by officials of the IMF and World Bank has been strongly against import substitution and protectionism, even though the east Asian record of success in gaining market shares suggests the either-or choice is over-simple. As Singer has argued, export-orientation is often possible only after an earlier phase of import-substitution.

For present purposes, however, the question is not so much which opinion or interpretation was the correct one, for any particular economy or at any specific time, as whether or not the governments of states still have as much freedom to choose the national development strategy as they have had in the past. Put another way, are the differences between forms of capitalism likely to persist in future, or are the forces of structural change pushing all governments along a path to greater convergence between models of capitalism? If the evidence of convergence suggests the latter, then the freedom and responsibility of states to choose between variants of capitalist development is reduced.

Ⅵ. Guided Writing (10 points)

Directions: You should spend about 30 minutes on this task. The title of the composition is given below. You should write at least 150 words. Write the composition in 3 paragraphs. In the first paragraph, state what your view is on the topic. In the second paragraph, give at least two reasons to support your view. Finally, in the last paragraph, give a brief summary of what you have discussed in the preceding paragraphs. Remember to write in readable handwriting on Answer Sheet B.